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Background Paper: Drug Trafficking, Substance Use, Immigrants and Refugees

ByMelinda Quintero

Despite decades of global drug control efforts, primarily led by the US throughout the 20th century and more specifically in the 1970s (also known as the “War on Drugs”), illicit drug use and the drug trade are significant global threats to health, safety, and security, especially in the Americas. The drug trade impacts individuals at every stage of the distribution chain, from production and trafficking in source countries to consumption in destination countries. 

As an organization dedicated to improving the lives of survivors of torture and systemic violence, VCST notes that many immigrants and refugees in Canada have lived experiences of trauma related to the systemic violence of the drug trade and drug policing. This VCST brief provides an overview of how migration intersects with the international drug trade, particularly how immigrants and refugees may experience the drug trade in their home and host countries.

Drug Trafficking and Forced Migration

Illicit drug production and trafficking destabilize local economies, increase poverty, and erode social and political structures. The trade also fuels armed conflict, putting whole populations in the path of domestic and international armed conflicts. These unsustainable conditions can lead many people to migrate in search of safety and economic stability. 

Participation in the drug trade is not always voluntary. Drug cartels use brutal tactics with impunity, including torture and threats to livelihoods, to force people into involvement across continents. Many immigrants and refugees in Canada come from countries deeply affected by the drug trade, including Afghanistan, Colombia, Mexico, Pakistan, and Venezuela. Many have histories of forced participation in drug-related activities.

Migrant and refugee routes often overlap with drug trafficking corridors, making migrant populations also highly vulnerable to exploitation. Criminal organizations subject people to torture, extortion, sexual abuse, forced substance use and human trafficking along these routes; migrants and refugees in high-risk and vulnerable situations may be coerced or forced into participating in the drug trade during migration. Limited resources and legal protections for migrants further increase the risks people encounter. Additionally, exposure to illicit substances during migration can intersect with the lived experience of trauma, with some people starting to use substances to cope with the stress of migration.

Connections between Torture, Migration & Drug Trafficking:

Substance Use among Immigrants and Refugees

Substance use adds another layer of complexity to the well-being of immigrants and refugees in Canada. While some individuals have prior exposure to drugs due to their home country’s involvement in the drug trade, others encounter increased access and exposure to illicit substances in refugee camps or host countries.

For example, respondents in the 2024 Inter-Cultural Association of Greater Victoria (ICA) settlement client survey reported that witnessing “homelessness and substance abuse” was among the most surprising aspects of their experience in Victoria. This suggests that exposure and access to substance use in Canada is noteworthy for newcomers and may impact their lives. This aligns with research indicating that increased access to drugs in host countries can contribute to substance use among immigrants and refugees. Some people may use substances to cope with the stress and trauma of forced migration and resettlement.

About Substance Use among Immigrants and Refugees:

  • Elkholy, H., Tay Wee Teck, J., Arunogiri, S. et al. (2023). Substance Use Disorders Among Forcibly Displaced People: A Narrative Review. Current Addiction Reports, 10(2), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-023-00467-6
  • Saleh, E.A., Lazaridou, F.B., Klapprott, F., Wazaify, M., Heinz, A., Kluge U. (2023). A systematic review of qualitative research on substance use among refugees. Addiction, 118(2), 218–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16021

Drug Policies and the Need for a Comprehensive Approach

Government policies for drug law enforcement can generate forced migration by increasing violence and instability in drug-producing and trafficking regions.

In 2024, the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights published a statement asserting that “the ‘war on drugs’ has failed to prevent drug production and consumption” and that excessive force in drug policing has negatively impacted the lives of “the poorest and most marginalized sectors of society.” The UN advocates for evidence-based approaches that place human rights at the center of drug policies. Recommended strategies include:

  • Decriminalization of drug use;
  • Involving affected communities in policymaking;
  • Harm reduction strategies, such as safe consumption sites and access to treatment;
  • More research into substance use among diverse communities to develop culturally appropriate interventions.

However, in 2025, the US government increased political, legal and military pressure on international drug traffickers. Over the span of a year, the US classified several Latin American drug cartels as terrorist organizations, began illegal lethal military actions into drug trafficking routes in the Caribbean, and reclassified fentanyl as a “weapon of mass destruction”. In early 2026, the US completed a surprise military operation in Venezuela—resulting in at least 80 deaths—kidnapping the Venezuelan president and his wife and removing them to the US to stand trial for allegedly engaging in drug-trafficking. 

Collectively, these actions attempt to increase the legal parameters for the US to enforce domestic drug laws internationally and imply flagrant use of military force to achieve drug policy goals or other interests. These policies further criminalize substance use within US borders. Through it all, civilian lives and livelihoods suffer violence and instability in the wake of international drug trafficking and drug law enforcement, continuing a cycle of instability and violence.   

About New Approaches to Drug Policy and Substance Use:

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